How to use instructions:
•Avoid talking casually to an individual with developmental delays as if she understands what is being said to her. …To facilitate the student’s attention to your instructions, the presentation of instructions must initially include only the most relevant information; instructions must be succinct and distinctive.
•Present stimuli that are maximally different from each other in both auditory and visual modes.
•Once a student can respond correctly to instructions when they are presented alone, be sure to randomly rotate their presentation…
•Make certain that the time elapsed between the instruction and the student’s response is as short as possible (i.e., no longer than 3 seconds).
•Avoid taking time out between instructions to record the student’s response.作者: LittleKoala 时间: 2008-1-11 15:02 标题: 二,如何选择需要强化的行为 一个最主要的考虑是挑选出那些能够导致孩子成功的行为予以强化。促进孩子的成功的同时减少他的失误,不仅有助于建立老师和孩子之间的合作关系,更有助于建立孩子的信任和自信。由于孩子很难理解老师教他们的努力,很有可能在最初的一个月对给他的要求大发脾气,在随后的时期里也会时不时发作。假如孩子这样的行为持续好几周没有减弱的迹象,检查一下这些行为是否被无意间强化了。如果不是,可以尝试以下的方法:
1.从现在开始,立刻停止教那个导致孩子发脾气的特定任务。介绍容易些的任务,几周或几个月后返回更加难一些的任务。
2. 把复杂的任务分解,教孩子掌握每一个步骤并予以强化,然后再把他们串起来。
3. 在最初的阶段,不要教孩子做眼神接触的训练(如:“看着我”),因为眼神接触是更细微的反应,孩子刚开始很难把它与强化联系起来。
4.尽量减少孩子坐在桌子上的时间。让孩子在1对1的情况下坐1-2分钟,完成任务后在发脾气以前离开桌子再玩1分钟,绝对比孩子发脾气而坐在桌子上20 分钟要强。孩子一旦发脾气,孩子学不了啥,而整个训练就成了负面的了。为避免这种情况,最好刚开始的时候,让孩子少坐一会,当孩子的技能提高后有可能坐长的时候在逐渐延长时间。
5.避免同时教两种行为,例如,先发出了“看着我”的指令,紧接着又发出“指向球”的指令。在这种情况下,孩子可能不知道到底该干啥。另一种坏的可能是,孩子看着老师,可觉得做了这个动作,老师又让他指球,这是惩罚。最好的办法是,先要求孩子看着老师,并予以强化,然后再要求他指球。在做很多任务的时候,并不必然要求孩子有眼神接触,孩子的技能提高了,眼神接触也会相应得以提高。
6.不要以为以前教过孩子某个行为,他就一定掌握这方面的知识。最好假设他基础为零。假如孩子已经知道部分或全部的任务,他随后掌握的进度会证明这一点。
7.不要给孩子太大的压力。有一些孩子在最初的3-4月,会很快掌握颜色,形状,大小和介词等。这样的孩子让老师深受鼓舞,因而对他的期望也水涨船高。但是,出乎所有人的意料,这样的孩子最有可能某一天突然大发脾气,攻击老师,或者退回自我刺激的状态。这样的孩子最有可能是压力太大了,可是他又没有任何办法告诉老师:你教的速度太快了。假如有这样的事,最好在随后的几天里,不要有任何要求,只是和孩子玩,即使他只是来到你身边,也要用食物予以奖励,然后让他走开而不要起任何要求。回到训练的初始状态,再逐步开始训练。不要担心训练的速度慢了,孩子会退步,曾经进步很快的孩子,当训练方法得当的时候,他依然会进步很快。
What behaviours to reinforce:
A major consideration in selecting behaviours is picking those that led to the student’s success. Maximising success and minimising errors establishes a cooperative relationship between the teacher and the student and builds the student’s trust and self-confidence…. Should the student show little reduction in tantrums over several weeks into treatment, examine the teaching situation to assess whether tantrums are inadvertently being reinforced. If they are not, consider the following alternatives:
•For the time being, stop teaching a particular task that gives rise to serious tantrums. Introduce easier tasks and then return back some weeks or months later.
•Break down complex behaviours to make them easier to acquire, reinforcing each component and later chaining them together.
•Do not teach eye contact in the early stages.
•Minimise the length of time the student sits in the chair. It is better to have a student in the chair for 1-2 minutes in a one-to-one situation and then have 1 minute off to play (before the student tantrums) than to have the student sit in the chair for 10 to 20 minutes while tantruming.
•Examine the teaching situation to ascertain two behaviours are accidentally being taught at the same time.
•Do not assume that the student possesses prior knowledge about a particular task being taught. It is better to assume the opposite.
•Avoid overwhelming the student. A student who learns skills quickly will continue acquiring skills when treatment is done in an optimal manner. 作者: LittleKoala 时间: 2008-1-11 15:05 标题: 三,如何选择和提供强化物 强化物对训练非常重要,如果没有学生喜欢和愿意为之而努力的强化物,就很难取得任何进展。但每个人的爱好又有很大的区别,需要努力去探索。假如训练中有问题,请尝试如下的方法:
1. 避免使用单一的强化物,例如仅仅是食物或者是社会性的鼓励(social reinforcement)(如说“好”)。也可能刚开始你会局限于他们,但很快你就会发现有很多种选择。也可能你会发现,刚开始仅仅说“好”并不能起到强化的作用,因为一般而言,社会性的强化物需要一定的时间才能掌握。
2. 避免让学生对一种强化物产生厌烦(become satiated)情绪。例如,有些老师喜欢一遍又一遍地夸“好孩子”。但是,在初始阶段,对这个夸奖的厌烦情绪可能使之没有任何强化的作用。即使食物是很有效的强化物,但是如果在饭后1-2小时进行训练,而用大量的食物奖励学生的每一个正确的反应,学生也很有可能会厌烦。如果是这样,每一次只给很少量的食物(如一小快饼干,而不是一整块饼干),让孩子只喝一小口水,而不是喝很多水。
3.积极有效地把使用初级和次级强化物结合起来。初级强化物包括食物和饮料,运动(physical activities)(根据个人偏好),感官刺激,还有回避不愉快的处境。这类强化物很有效,一般独立于对孩子们使用过强化物的经历。相反,社会性的强化物,如关注和口头表扬,属于次级强化物,是通过后天的学习才能掌握的(acquired, learned)。这就是说,他们开始时必须与初级强化物一起使用。在孩子明白次级强化物的作用后,可以独立使用,但仍然需要时常配合初级强化物一起使用。例如,孩子做对了,重复地夸他“好孩子”会很快失去效果,除非这个夸奖时不时伴随着初级强化物,如食物和短时间的玩耍。
4.要考虑到孩子是否喜欢非常高兴和夸张(exuberantly)地夸奖,如鼓掌,大笑,扔到空中等等。有的孩子对声音很敏感,这种奖励会是一种惩罚。这需要事前做好评估。
5.强化物的提供要及时。有时候,有的老师在孩子正确完成任务后,超过4秒钟才提供强化物,这会有鼓励其他行为而不是真正需要鼓励的行为的危险。要想起到鼓励的效果,必须在孩子完成任务后的1秒中之内提供给孩子。所以,做训练的时候,这些强化物必须随手可得。唯一的例外是,老师在延迟提供强化物的同时,采用社会性的强化物,如看着孩子微笑,并且夸“好孩子”,同时在拿和给强化物。这样实际上是两种强化物在同时使用。
6. 避免强化错误的联系。例如,老师拿着鞋子问“这是什么?”,孩子回答一个发音类似的词(如 ooze 而不是shoe)。老师说“不对”,然后辅助孩子正确发音。孩子答对了,老师予以鼓励。然而在这里,孩子并没有因为说出类似发音的词受鼓励,而是因为模仿老师的辅助而得以奖励。正确的做法应该是,老师拿着鞋,重复一遍问题“这是什么?”,同时辅助孩子正确回答,并予以奖励。请记住ABA的一条通则,不要同时给予很多指令。同时,按照正确的汇合教学法(discrete trial procedures)的程序重复指令。
7.避免假设孩子会明白你所说的,因而以为说很多话能够起到强化作用。这种强化叫做特定行为的奖励(behaviour-specific praise)。例如,当孩子把积木正确放在小桶里以后,老师说“你把积木放在小桶里,非常好!”或者,当孩子仿说正确后,老师表扬说“你这样说‘妈妈’ 非常正确!”正常的4岁以上的孩子可能明白这些,但是,很难相信发育迟缓的孩子在接受训练的第一年就会明白这些。没有确切的证据表明,孩子会从老师这些随机的评论中学会并明白它们的意思。作为一个通则,我们建议老师的话不要太多。假如孩子不明白老师所说的,时间长了,他们会学会如何忽视这些。
8.不要在孩子发脾气的时候让他逃离训练,因为这会无意中起到负强化的作用。所以,每次训练不能让孩子在不高兴的时候结束,一定要有一个很高兴的结尾。
9.避免强化错误。因为孩子发育迟缓,很多老师和家长会鼓励孩子付出的很小的努力。尽管这种鼓励是真诚的,但有鼓励错误行为的危险。
How to select and deliver reinforcers:
•Avoid relying on a limited set of reinforcers, such as food reinforcement or social reinforcement (e.g. saying, “Good”).
•Avoid having the student become satiated on a particular reinforcer.
•Effectively use primary (such as food and beverages, physical activities, sensory reinforcers.) and secondary reinforcement (e.g. attention, verbal praise, etc.) combinations.
•Consider whether the student likes to be exuberantly reinforced with clapping, laughing, being tossed in the air, and so on.
•Do not delay reinforcement.
•Avoid reinforcing the wrong association. As a general rule, do not give several commands at the same time. Please follow correct discrete trial procedures.
•Avoid verbally reinforcing a student’s behaviours on the assumption that the student understands your comments. As a general rule, we advise teachers not to talk too much.
•Do not inadvertently reinforce the student’s trantruming by letting the student escape or avoid the teaching situation. In contrast, letting the student leave a stressful teaching situation contingent on correct or appropriate responding strengthens that behaviour.
•Avoid reinforcing errors.作者: LittleKoala 时间: 2008-1-11 15:07 标题: 四,如何做辅助 1.避免无意识的辅助。这些包括看着要求孩子识别的物体,嘴里念着正确的答案而没有意识到这会是辅助,持续把要孩子识别的物体放在桌子的中心而不知道这可能是位置辅助(position prompt),等等。假如老师没意识到这些辅助,它们就很难消退。相应地,孩子就有可能变得更加依赖辅助而不是对指令作出反应。
2.指令和辅助要重叠。也就是说,避免延迟提供辅助,因为这会影响孩子建立指令与反应之间的联系。
3.辅助的消退。辅助既可以突然消退,也可逐步消退。前者也叫摸索法(probing)。假如辅助消退后,孩子对指令的反应依然正确,训练会得以加速因为不需要经历整个的消退过程。假如摸索不成功的话,可以试试相对弱一些(如从手把手到轻拍他的手,到只是指向目标)的辅助,这样就需要逐步消退辅助。
在选择何种消退方式的时候,先试一试弱一些的辅助,看看是否有效。假如孩子对指令的反应不正确,重复一次。如果孩子的反应依然不对,再试一下相对强一些的辅助。在辅助逐渐消退的过程中,老师要逐步从强一些的辅助到弱一些的辅助。
4.在消退辅助的过程中,请不要引起孩子的关注,这会影响他对指令的反应。如果有这种情况,可采用如下三种办法:(1)减少对辅助后正确行为的鼓励,同时加大对不辅助正确行为的鼓励;(2)探索没辅助的训练;(3)转换到另外种类的辅助。
5.清楚如何教孩子模范语言和非语言行为。教一个行为的时候,模仿比身体辅助更容易,高效和自然。
How to prompt
•Avoid unintentional prompts. These prompts include visually attending to the object the student is asked to identify, mouthing the correct response without recognising that it may be a form of prompting, continually asking the student to identify the item appearing in the centre of a display and not recognising that this could be a position prompt.
•Overlap instructions and the prompts, to avoid delays between the instructions and the presentation of prompts.
•Fade all prompts. They could be faded either abruptly or gradually. While presenting a less intrusive prompt, should the student fail to respond to the prompt, repeat the instruction and the prompt on the next trial. If the student still does not respond correctly, pair a more intrusive prompt with the instruction on the next trial. In fading a prompt, the teacher shifts from one prompt to a less intrusive prompt in gradual steps.
•In fading prompts, make sure that the student does not pay attention to the decreasing intrusiveness of the prompt.
•Know how to teach the student to imitate both verbal and non-verbal behaviours. It’s easier, more efficient, and more natural to teach most behaviours by modelling them rather than physically prompting them.作者: LittleKoala 时间: 2008-1-11 15:12 标题: 五,如何安排训练节奏 1,要把每一个训练任务之间的间隔(指孩子完成任务受到奖励到下一个指令之间的间隔)尽可能缩短。这一点在训练的起步阶段尤其重要,否则老师不容易获得学生的注意。做好训练时,有专人做记录;如果自己记录,必须尽可能短。
2,教新任务的时候,要穿插复习已掌握的旧任务。这一点很重要,因为复习已掌握的旧任务,孩子会很容易得到强化物,这有助于增加他的注意力和减少发脾气的可能。当孩子学习一个新的任务的时候,不要让他连续经历3-4个失误,一定要及时穿插,给他提供成功的机会。
3,当教孩子困难任务的时候,要防止他的注意力转移。这是因为面对困难任务,逃避也是一种强化。如果有这样的情况,可及时进行注意力训练(attention exercise)。老师可以很快地要求孩子做4-5个已掌握的动作,如“起立”,“坐下”,“转身”等,然后再做1-2个非语言的动作模仿(non-verbal imitation)。要迅速对此予以鼓励和强化,然后立刻再介绍困难的任务。我们把这叫做唤醒(wake-up)或注意力训练,因为它有助于干预孩子的自我刺激行为,提高他们的注意力。
4,当孩子在训练间隙休息的时候,要确保孩子没有沉溺于自我刺激的行为,否则,训练再开始时,孩子很难再进入状态。休息期间,可以让孩子玩合适的玩具或游戏,如体力活动等。
How to pace trials
* Keep intertrial intervals as short as possible.
* Intersperse mastered tasks with new tasks.When the student is learning a task, do not let the student experience more than 3 or 4 failures in a row before interpersing 1 or 2 trials of a mastered task.
* Prevent the student's attention from drifting when the student is being taught difficult material.If this wane in attention interferes with the student's learning, introduce attention exercises, in which the teacher presents the student with 4 or 5 mastered instructions in quick successions, such as "Stand up","Sit down","Turn around", and 1 or 2 non-verbal imitation tasks. Quickly reinforce each response and then immediately introduce the difficult task.
* When the student is given time to play between teaching sessions, make sure that these breaks do not in volve the kinds of self-stimulatory behaviour that lead to the student's being "unavailable" when she returns to the formal teaching situation.
How to weaken interfering behaviours
* To weaken behaviours, identify the reinforcers that maintain the behaviours and then withhold these reinforcers (i.e., place these behaviours on extinction).
* When using time-out (e.g., by placing a student in a corner contingent on a tantrum), make certain that this consequence does not serve as negative reinforcement, allowing the student to escape from the teaching situation.
* Remember that the rewards inherent in self-stimulatory rituals are most likely sensory or perceptual in nature, which cannot be removed by the teacher. For that reason, removing social attention is not effective at reducing such a behaviour.
Where and when to teach
* In the early stages of learning, teach the student in one room and at one table.Once a particular task is mastered, the skill may be transferred to other settings.
* Be aware that generalisation training occurs when new people join the teaching team.When a teacher must leave, provide at least a 2-week interval in which the experienced and new teachers work together side by side in an apprenticeship fashion and then take turns teaching.
* DO not assume that a student, without extensive preparation, will learn new behaviours by being placed in a mainstreamed class. We are not familiar with any data indicating that merely exposing a student with autism to typical peers helps the student's development.
* Be aware that data show that placing a student with mild developmental delays in the company of individuals with severe developmental delays may cause the student to regress.
* Do not expect the student to make optimal progress with less than 40 hours treatment per week.
* If the student is taught 6 hours per day on a daily basis, reserve most of the difficult tasks, such as verbal imitation, for the morning sessions than in the afternoon.作者: LittleKoala 时间: 2008-1-16 10:58 标题: re:感谢诸位的鼓励和支持,这个专题的翻译任务... 感谢诸位的鼓励和支持,这个专题的翻译任务已经完成了。
非惩罚类中包括:Extinction(忽视),differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior and alternative behavior(区别加强不兼容行为或替代行为),differential reinforcement of other behavior(区别加强其它行为)以及differental reinforcement of low rates of responding (加强低频率行为)
Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI): 基本原理是加强新的行为,该行为与需减弱的行为不能同时发生。例如:想要减少孩子乱扔东西的习惯,训练并加强孩子把东西/玩具轻轻地放下,因为这两个行为不可能同时发生,所以当新的行为被建立并巩固,旧的不好的行为就自然减弱并消除了。
Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA):基本原理与DRI类似,只是两种行为在形态上(topographically)不冲突,新的行为占用了需减弱的行为发生的时间,使得该行为没有机会发生。
Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO): 基本原理是给予加强物只要需减弱的行为在既内时间内没有发生,奖励任何在这一既定时间内发生的好的行为。方法:(1)设定好规定时间,例如五分钟,根据具体行为;(2)需减弱的行为在这时间区段内没有发生,奖励任何在这时段结束时发生的好的行为;(3)如果需减弱的行为在这时间区段时发生了,重新开始计时。
Differential reinforcement of low rates of responding (DRL): 其中又分为三种(1)Full-session DRL —— 设定好时间区段和行为数量标准,在该时间区段内,行为发生的数量同于或低于标准,刚得到加强物。(2)Interval DRL——同上,只是把时间区段再深入地划分为更小的区段。例如,为了减少孩子上课时自言自语,full-session DRL设定的时间为一堂课(50分钟),标准为孩子自言自语少于10次;interval DRL则把一堂课的时间再度划分为五个10分钟,每10分钟内孩子自言自语的次数少于2次。后者使孩子更为频繁地接触到加强物。(3)Spaced-responding DRL ——用于减低行为发生的频率,但不完全移除行为。基本原理是设定该行为每发生两次之间的时间间隔,等于或超过该时间间隔是发生该行为,则得到加强物。例如,孩子上课过于频繁地发言,设定孩子两次发言之间的时间为最少15分钟,由是,当孩子第二次发言距上一次发言的时间等于或超过15分钟的时候,奖励发言行为。通过这种方法,既不会使得孩子从此不再发言,同时也减少孩子课堂发言的数量(假设这一行为影响了课堂秩序)。
Overcorrection:包括两种 (1)Restitutional overcorrection——要求孩子把因由他的行为而破坏的环境重塑至比破坏之前更好(requiring the disruptor to correct the consequences of his misbehavior by having him resotre the situation to a state vastly improved from that which existed before the disruption)。例如,孩子在把水倒在客厅的地上(假设是故意的行为),要求孩子把水擦干净,而且把整个客厅的地板都擦干净。(2)Positive practice overcorrection ——要求孩子多次重复做与破坏行为相反的好的行为。例如,孩子把口香糖粘在台面底下,不断重复要孩子练习把口香糖扔进垃圾箱里。